Big Blog II: Romanian Folk Music

Like in many other cultures, folk is one of the oldest types of music in Romania. It’s difficult to identify an exact definition or description of Romanian folk and people studying the genre have found that even Romanians tend to disagree with each other about what is included. Part of the reason for this is that the music has been influenced so intensely by the various cultures that have passed through the area, including the Dacians, the Romans, and the Ottoman Empire.

(Buhaiul)

 

(Buciumul)

      

(Ocarina)

 
(Cobza)

The genre’s popularity peaked between the 15th-17th centuries when it gained a large audience that hasn't disappeared since. At this time, traditional Romanian folk was influential on both religious and lay music. The origins of Romanian folk began with vocal music stemming from the need of the people to express themselves in some mode other than written text. In the beginning, instruments were only included in music to provide the harmony and they were meant to be secondary to the melody and the lyrics. As instrumental music became independent from the lyric/melody-based type, folk dance pieces became one of the most acclaimed forms. In a similar development, dance music specifically was originally performed with only instruments and no lyrics, but vocals were then added to enhance the emotion.

Despite the different cultural influences, Romanian folk consists of some common elements and instruments that define the genre. The majority of Romanian folk displays similarities to traditional Hungarian and Balkan music, providing a unifying thread throughout the genre. A primary characteristic is the continuous emphasis on melody rather than percussion. In many songs, the violin is used to provide the melody while an instrument called the cimbalom provides percussion. In addition, the melody and rhythm of many Romanian folk songs are repetitive, as is the pitch because a restricted number of pitches are used in this type of music. In terms of timbre, some Romanian folk musicians describe the music as a mixture of sadness and happiness, with melodies that evoke a sense of yearning. Similar to other types of folk music, the lyrics in these songs often display the personal values of the performer and/or bring light to issues and struggles present in society. Love is another prevalent topic, which is easily displayed through the sense of yearning and longing given off by the melancholic melody. The stories told through these songs generally focus on nature and the seasons, as well as the mythology of rural Romania. Also popular in the rural areas of Romania are folk songs that relate to the tasks and lifestyles of those who worked in the fields of the countryside. Improvisation is an important part of Romanian folk music tradition, and this sometimes leads the music to be highly ornamented. The embellishments added to these songs do not follow any particular musical rules and are primarily meant to emphasize the emotion of the song. 

Five categories of instruments are used widely within Romanian folk music. Some of these are categories we studied in class, including idiophones, membranophones, aerophones, and chordophones. In addition to these, pseudo instruments are utilized in Romanian folk music. These consist of things like leaves, fish scales, and blades of grass that are fashioned into instruments. Examples of idiophones typical to this genre are bells and the toaca. Popular membranophones are the darabana and the buhaiul. Some aerophones used that might be familiar to us are the pan flute and the bagpipes, but Romanian folk music also commonly uses the buciumul and the ocarina. Additionally, there are a few chordophones that are likely known to us, such as the violin and the zither. In addition to these chordophones though, the genre often uses the cimbalom and the cobza. However, instruments and their use do vary greatly by region. For example, the violin is most prevalent in the small areas of Banat, Bucovina, and Crişana. Guitar and fiddles appear most frequently in Transylvania. The accordion shows up most regularly in Bucovina and Muntenia. Many regions have also incorporated new instruments into their repertoire in contemporary times, such as the electric keyboard and modern drum sets. 

                                        (Cimbalom)

The subgenres of Romanian folk music are pretty wide and varied. A common subgenre is Muzică Populară, which is urban folk, often performed on stage, that’s been heavily influenced by folk music from the rural areas of Romania. This type is characterized by a precise/uniform style, with melodic instruments like the violin and saxophone, as well as instruments that provide a walking bass line, such as the accordion and the guitar. Muzică Populară often features romantic lyrics (although these became nationalistic during the rule of the communist regime in Romania) as well as wide vibrato that is sung by both men and women. Muzică Lăutărească is a bit more specific, as it’s the music of the lăutari, a class of professional Roma musicians. Historically, this group performed in Romanian royal courts as well as monasteries. After the class gained more freedom and independence they began to perform at weddings, baptisms, funerals, and various other ceremonies. The typical components of this subgenre are complex harmonies, extreme ornamentation, and the reinterpretation of classical Romanian melodies. Taraf bands, groups viewed as the best manifestation of Romanian folk culture, fall within this category. The music of taraf bands often incorporates the fiddle, cimbalom, and double bass. Taraf de Haïdouks is one of the most popular modern taraf bands. Muzică Tradițională (aka Folclorică) is the third of the most frequently identified subgenres. This is music passed from generation to generation and is usually performed by nonprofessional, rural musicians. These performers are generally self-taught or learn from older relatives/mentors. This type of music relies on oral tradition, therefore the musicians are often not required to learn how to read written music. There are several common styles that primarily fall within the subgenre of Muzică Tradițională. The first is the doina, which is a poetic and melancholic form that’s sometimes compared to the blues. Also like the blues, the lyrics focus on themes of love, sadness, and longing, and it’s defined by rhythmic tension and descending melodies. The doina is likely to sound improvised, even if it isn’t in reality, and features a lot of ornamentation. This type has been considered the most widespread type of folk in Romania, although it has many different forms based on the region of performance. The balade is another subgenre that allows improvisation and can include spoken word along with lyrical text. Other prominent forms are the bocet (laments) and cântec batrânesc (epic ballads).

Here is a performance of Pe Loc, a traditional folk song by Béla Bartók. This one only features two instruments, but it does show how the guitar has been further incorporated into modern Romanian folk performances.

This is a performance of another song by Béla Bartók, in which the importance of the violin is shown. It seems like the violin really is present in almost all cultures around the world, ranging from the United States to India to Romania!

Folk music is still a very famous genre in contemporary Romanian music. Romanis specifically, through their involvement in the aforementioned lautari ensembles, have created new styles of folk, such as the romanţă. In some cases, this contemporary music has also been influenced by American folk music, particularly in terms of the prominent use of the guitar. However, contemporary folk showcases many of the characteristics of the traditional genre, including the romantic lyrics and the poetic/melancholic vibes. The modern manifestation of the genre began in the 1960s with the work of the band Phoenix, a Transylvanian rock band. The popularity of modern folk grew in the 1970s and ‘80s through promotion by the cultural movement Cenaclul Flacăra, begun by Romanian poet Adrian Păunescu. This movement has shaped many of Romanian’s current acclaimed folk artists.

Here's a more modern folk song I found that I thought was really catchy. There isn’t a lot of complexity to the lyrics, but it does focus on the traditional topic of love.

One modern artist I found that I really liked was Via Dacă. The first song is dedicated to Paparudă, a Romanian deity who’s called upon to bring rain during times of drought. The second revolves around the common folkloric theme of nature, as well as social issues. It focuses on the issue of forest fires and the way human greed is destroying the environment.

References


Adysanu. (2015, September 8). O sesiune pe folclorul romanesc si aroman (English translation). Lyrics Translate. https://lyricstranslate.com/en/o-sesiune-pe-folclorul-romanesc-si-aroman-sesion-romanian-and-aromanian-folklore.html


Bertsch, C. {colleenfiddle}. (2015, December 18). What is Romanian folk music? StringMuse. https://stringmuse.com/2015/12/what-is-romanian-folk-music/


Filda, A. (n.d.). Instrument: Cobza. Quora. https://romania.quora.com/Instrument-Cobz%C4%83
Genius. (n.d.). Arde pădurea. https://genius.com/Via-daca-arde-padurea-lyrics


Iacob, C. (2020). Elements of Romanian folkloric musical traditions and Narrativity in George Enescu’s “Romanian Rhapsody Op. 11, No. 1” and Béla Bartók’s “Romanian Folk Dances SZ. 56. Texas Tech University. https://ttu-ir.tdl.org/bitstream/handle/2346/86203/IACOB-PROJECTPAPER--DMA-2020.pdf


Iocthebard. (2012, May 21). Lume, lume (English translation). Lyrics Translate. https://lyricstranslate.com/en/lume-lume-oh-world-oh-world.html


Latham, E. (2022, May 7). Romania. Britannica. https://www.britannica.com/place/Romania


Lufthansa City Center. (n.d.). Folklore and music of Romania. https://www.panacomp.net/folklore-and-music-of-romania/


Macpherson, A. (n.d.). Romanian folk music. Danube on Thames. https://danubeonthames.wordpress.com/romania/romania-summer-school-2016/romanian-folk-music/


Matei, C. (n.d.). People around the world. Pinterest. https://www.pinterest.ru/pin/the-bucium-trmbi-or-tulnic-is-a-type-of-alphorn-used-by-mountain-dwellers-in-romania-of-dacian-origin-it-was-used-in-the-p--365495325989707673/


MirunaV. (2018, June 29). Paparuda (English translation). Lyrics Translate. https://lyricstranslate.com/en/paparuda-paparuda.html-0


Sampson, A. (2020, September 7). Tourists flock to Romanian village with Prince Charles’s royal seal of approval. Tatler. https://www.tatler.com/article/romanian-tourists-swamp-village-loved-by-prince-charles


Slack, S. (2021, September 13). Buhai, friction drum, Horniman museum, London. https://www.steveslack.co.uk/calendar/2021/9/8/buhai-friction-drum-horniman-museum-london


Wikipedia. (2022, April 8). Music of Romania. https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Music_of_Romania


Wikipedia. (2022, April 28). Ocarina. https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ocarina


Williams, A. (2018, April 5). Village scenes: Life in rural Romania. A Dangerous Business: Travel Blog. https://www.dangerous-business.com/village-scenes-life-in-rural-romania/

Music and Family

For the music and family blog, I interviewed my mom about her music-related opinions during childhood, her teenage years, and the most recent years of her adulthood. Beginning with childhood, she said that she didn’t have any specific memory of her first encounter with music. She said she thought one reason for this might be because music was harder to listen to back then because access to music at that time wasn’t as easy as it is for us now with the invention of iPhones and other technology. However, she specifically remembers that, although rock was probably the most popular and mainstream genre at the time, she listened primarily to country. This was partially because she enjoyed it, but also because it was what she grew up hearing her parents listen to. She said that country is what was played in her home every Sunday morning as her family cooked breakfast and cleaned the house. Due to all of this, one of her favorite artists as a child was George Strait. I was surprised to learn that as a kid my mom and her classmates didn’t have any music classes that they were required to take. Chorus, band, and similar activities were offered but there weren’t any fine art credits that required a musical course to be taken.

Although her favorite genre of music has always been country, my mom did get into rock in her teenage years. She said she really gravitated towards it when she first heard AC/DC, even though they had risen to popularity a while before she became a teen. Of course, she also listened to a variety of super popular artists in other genres during the late ‘80s and early ‘90s, such as Madonna, Michael Jackson, and Billy Joel. When asked what technology she used to listen to her favorite music, the first thing she thought of was boomboxes. And of course, she also used cassettes and walkmans. But another method of listening to music that she remembered very vividly was records. Her grandmother had a big record player in her living room and they would listen to music on it together anytime she visited her grandma’s house. Another place to listen to music was school dances, which my mom said she attended with her friends anytime the school hosted one. Again, much of the music played there was in the pop and rock genres. However, she specified that it was mostly “soft” rock because, much like today, schools wouldn’t play anything that was too “risque”. She said that during her teenage years she didn’t attend many concerts, likely because she lived in such a rural area where the most popular artists rarely performed. However, she did go to school with someone who was in a rock band and heard his music occasionally. Surprisingly, she said artists didn’t really influence the fashion of her or any of her friends at the time. I was pretty surprised by this because I definitely thought hair bands would have influenced both hairstyles and fashion. But when I asked about this she said that within the small town rural area she lived in, kids and teens were still expected to be “clean-cut” and she didn’t know anyone who really rebelled against that norm.

Although she still primarily listens to country music, my mom said she has added some new stuff to her musical repertoire in the last decade or so, including more current mainstream pop and soul. One of her favorite artists right now is Adele, and she also enjoys stuff like Harry Styles (admittedly that one is because of the stuff I make her listen to when we’re in the car together). When asked what she thinks of the music kids listen to today (although she likes some of the stuff I’ve introduced her to) she said she doesn’t really “know” much of “our music” but a lot of it doesn’t really appeal to her and she believes much of it could be better. Finally, when I asked if there were any artists she wished were still alive and making music, the first ones she thought of were George Jones and Conway Twitty.

She said back then, and still, her favorite AC/DC song was "You Shook Me All Night Long" which, coincidentally, is also my favorite AC/DC song.

Her favorite Adele song at the moment is Easy On Me but she's been listening to the whole "30" album pretty often for months now.

When my mom said one artist she wish was still alive was George Jones, I knew I recognized the name but I didn't realize until I looked further into him that I've also heard several of his songs. Just like my mom was influenced by the music her parents listened to, I heard much of her favorite country music when I was a kid because my parents would play it in the car and around the house. 

Big Blog #1: Indie Folk

Folk Basics: Definitions, Dissemination, and Use

Traditional folk music, the genre that indie folk eventually grew from, has been around as long as music itself. It’s believed that it may have arisen from humans imitating sounds from nature and cave life. At the time of its origin, and for many centuries after, folk music was based in local communities and was passed down orally from generation to generation, primarily within families or other small groups. Traditional folk is a genre that was created informally, rather than through official academic or religious institutions. This music was likely performed by the local musician(s) in any given community, as a form of entertainment and storytelling. This music was then transported to new regions by migrant workers and changed over time with subsequent retellings. With time, new versions of the same song would sprout within different communities and regions. The way that new music was originally composed isn’t documented or well known, but many believe that songs would originally be created by one composer, then learned and eventually changed by others in the community. 

American folk music specifically is first noted in the 18th century. Most of the origins of traditional American folk are believed to be international, with settlers from England, Scotland, and Ireland influencing northern Appalachian folk. Southern folk music likely grew from chants and rhythms utilized by enslaved Africans. Basically what is viewed as traditional American folk music is an umbrella term for music produced by a wide variety of ethnic groups and communities. However, there are some similarities within the folk music of America. Much of it originates in rural communities and is functional, or associated with other activities. In some cases, it's used in relation to events in the human life cycle. In others, American folk music follows calendrical events that are relevant to the community, such as agricultural seasons. This varied utilization of folk music results in many different genres based on use. For example, there are love songs, work songs, songs meant to accompany certain games/events, lullabies, and educational songs for children (such as the alphabet and riddles). Some of the most common in western societies are ballads and epics. Further since folk maintained a distance from religious use and popularity among elites, many of them share secular and earthy themes, despite regional differences. 

Traditional folk music was primarily performed by amateurs, with participation by the entire community. However, some specialists (such as instrumentalists and narrative singers) had important roles in the folk communities. It was performed in a wide variety of places, ranging from workplaces to family gatherings. A fundamental characteristic of traditional American folk is that it has been employed during times when American communities have needed it most. It provides an outlet that given segments of the population can understand and relate to. This is often most relatable to oppressed groups, such as racial and ethnic minorities, and especially the working classes. Early American folk traditionally spoke on the current events of the time and showed the perspective of the various and diverse groups inhabiting America. Much traditional folk music can be identified through the inclusion of political agendas. The subjects ranged from work and satire to civil rights and war. It has provided a source of community and a form of expression in which anyone was welcome to participate. 

Although the use has remained steady over time, folk music traditions have evolved throughout the centuries, as well as displaying regional differences. For example, the work songs of enslaved Africans provided an outlet that used call and response along with traditional African rhythms. This traditional music eventually evolved into gospel and blues. The folk music of British and Irish immigrants involved ballads, or storytelling songs, that formed the music of the Appalachian mountains, while the population of Louisiana by the French helped shape Cajun and zydeco music. In the western United States, miners and railroad workers, along with cowboys, performed work songs that sometimes included Spanish and Mexican aspects. 

18th/19th Century Folk

Eighteenth-century American folk was based in the working class, as they composed music that provided commentary on current events, such as crime. These were usually composed by anonymous urban poets and continued the tradition of being passed down orally. The primary source of dissemination for this music was urban coffee houses and bars, but also local villages. However, by the mid 19th century, American folk music had begun to fade out in villages to the point where it was only well known by older individuals. But, simultaneously, knowledge of folk music was growing in urban society. Urban folklorists were transcribing songs from live performances as a way to collect and publish this music for those in urban areas. This eventually led to the inclusion of traditional American folk music in classical concerts, which in turn led traditional folk music culture and amateur folk artists to incorporate choral arrangements into their music. Traditional folk was further changed by the rise of larger cities and industrial societies. 

20th Century Folk

The 20th century is when folk music really gained popularity outside of amateur performers and small local communities. Distinctions between folk and popular music became blurred during the 20th century and folk music’s foundation in rural areas decreased as it was taken up by various social and political movements. In the 1930s, with the occurrence of the Great Depression and the Dust Bowl, the messages of folk music (relating to economic hardships and work problems) became relatable even to what had once been the upper echelons of society. The 1930s and ‘40s ushered in what would become known as the “First Folk Revival”. Folk dominated the ‘30s, with President Franklin Roosevelt hosting folk concerts at the White House and sponsoring festivals. One of the most popular at the time was Sarah Gertrude Knott’s National Folk Festival. The folk revival was viewed as a way to promote democracy, cultural pluralism, and the destruction of cultural/racial discrimination. Artists such as Woody Guthrie composed folk music that promoted ethnic and economic equality and inclusion. Post-WWII, artists like Pete Seeger composed songs targeted toward liberal advocacy and social movements such as anti-segregation. Although the messages were new, based on the social and political climate of the time, they were similar to traditional folk music in style (such as the use of acoustic instruments) and continued to emphasize rights for the working class. This music continued to be performed in church and private settings but also became incorporated in worker strikes and union halls. Folk maintained its popularity through the ‘50s with performers like Guthrie, Bill Monroe, and Earl Scruggs maintaining a constant creation of songs. The movement gained even more acclaim than before with major events such as the Vietnam War and the Civil Rights Movement resulting in a multitude of new music. Folk music’s primary change in the first part of the 20th century came through recording studios and mass media, as songs were spread more rapidly and professional performers took up a part in producing it. 

Folk’s popularity began to wane in the 1970s, inspiring both new and past artists to begin a resurgence through a new type of folk music, ushering in a second revival. With the post-Vietnam-War peace of the 1970s, contemporary folk was formed. This new music consisted of more fixed/stable forms and well-known composters, while also maintaining some aspects of traditional folk music. Inspired by the legacies of past popular folk artists, folk rock began to gain attention. This led to the rise of stars such as Bob Dylan and Joni Mitchell, creating a style that could be viewed as contemporary folk. Folk’s presence in pop culture continued to increase. Throughout the 1980s, artists continued to focus on economic inequality and hardship, focusing on Regan and the concept of trickle-down economics. The late 20th century saw an insurgence of indie rock artists into the folk scene, combining some instrumental and poetic aspects of traditional folk with more modern instrumentation and new types of lyrics. This time period was very focused on combining aspects of folk and rock to create a contemporary sound, but it also featured the melding of traditional folk with country music and bluegrass, leading to artists like The Punch Brothers 

21st Century Folk and Indie Folk: Basic Elements

Due to the emergence of such a wide variety of folk artists during the 20th century, in the current century “folk music” no longer refers to just the traditional music of the 18th and 19th centuries. The popularity of contemporary folk has continued, with artists emerging from all around the states. Twenty-first-century reimaginings of folk still rely on beliefs about music in the rural village cultures of 18th/19th century Europe, while also utilizing recording technology to widen its audience.

While modern conceptions do relate to traditional folk music the most recent interpretations of folk differ largely from those of early 20th century America. Artists continue to write about social issues, such as war and economic troubles, but today’s folk has relied largely on indie rock to become a genre that’s often thought of as “indie folk”. This genre maintains some traditional elements, like acoustic instrumentation, but also indie rock elements that emerged in the early 2000s, such as more complex lyrics. This specific subgenre can be traced back most clearly to 1990s folk music that combined aspects of alternative rock and traditional folk.

Although indie folk has maintained the outline of traditional folk in terms of types of instrumentation and lyrics about social issues, these aspects have increased in complexity. While still implementing acoustic instruments, modern indie folk tends to provide a combination of more instruments being played at once, rather than just a single acoustic guitar or banjo. Folk bands also usually rely on at least several singers, whereas traditional folk often included just one primary performer while others were simply participating in a sort of communal form. Much current indie folk also implements elements of bluegrass and other evolving forms of music.

Modern Indie Folk Artists

Instruments

Almost all modern indie folk songs include some sort of chordophone, usually the banjo or a guitar, as well as a membranophone. Idiophones (primarily clapping and shakers) are used sometimes as well, such as in “Work Song” and “In the Woods Somewhere” by Hozier. There’s still occasionally the use of aerophones and larger instruments like the piano but these aren’t as prominent as the others. Most of these songs also prioritize vocals over instrumentals, including points where the vocals are clearly more intense and emphasized than the instruments. This happens near the end of “Rivers and Road” by The Head and the Heart. It’s also the case throughout most of “Work Song”, as the main focus here is the lyrics, and the instruments mostly just provide an underlying beat that’s almost nonexistent at points. And it’s true of “You Missed My Heart” by Phoebe Bridgers, which comes off as a sort of tonal song, with some of the sections sounding more lyrical while others are almost spoken. 

Themes and Lyrics

Many Indie Folk songs today continue to focus on either social issues or love stories. “Sheep” by Mt. Joy talks about the issues of war and violence against minorities in America and “Dirty Paws” by Of Monsters and Men comments on the battle of industrialization versus nature. The lyrics of many other indie folk songs also focus on nature, either personifying it or telling a story that involves it somehow. This is a big theme in The Civil Wars’ “Kingdom Come”, where they talk about the wind “whispering” and the trees “pointing”. It also occurs in “Bloom” by The Paper Kites with the lyric “when the evening pulls the sun down.”

The love stories of indie folk music are often sorrowful in some way. For example, the narrator in “Gale Song” by the Lumineers is reminiscing about how far they are from the person they love. “You Missed My Heart” tells the story of a lost romance that ends in death for everyone involved. Many of the other songs that aren’t love stories also have themes of sorrow, such as “Rosyln” by Bon Iver, which presumably tells the story of a woman who feels trapped and worries that her only option is suicide.

"Work Song" by Hozier implements the common indie folk elements of intense vocals, use of chordophones and idiophones, and the theme of a sorrowful love story.

"Dirty Paws" by Of Monster and Men focuses on social/political themes, as many traditional folk songs did and also makes many references to nature and animals.

"Kingdom Come" by The Civil Wars uses a single chordophone and the rest of the song is supported solely by strong vocals. It also personifies nature like much traditional folk and tells a sorrowful story. 

References  

History 101. (n.d.). The rise and fall of American folk music. https://www.history101.com/the-rise-and-fall-of-american-folk-music/

Masterclass. (2022, February 24). Folk music artists: A brief history of folk music. https://www.masterclass.com/articles/folk-music-guide

Netti, B. (2020, December 3). Folk music. Britannica. https://www.britannica.com/art/folk-music

Popular Timelines. (n.d.). Folk music. https://populartimelines.com/timeline/Folk-music

Ruehl, K. (2018, April 25). The history of American folk music. LiveAbout. https://www.liveabout.com/the-history-of-american-folk-music-1322572

Ruehl, K. (2019, January 31). What is indie folk music? LiveAbout. https://www.liveabout.com/indie-folk-1322459

The Slow Music Movement. (2018, November 25). What is folk music? Thoughts on the history of folk and its various subgenres. The Slow Music Movement Blog. https://www.theslowmusicmovement.org/blog/slow_folk_thoughts_on_the_history_of_folk__its_various_subgenres

Beyond the Classroom: Indigenous American and African Cultures

One thing we saw briefly while watching the “Powwow Experience” video was a depiction of the Native American Eagle Dance. It looked really elaborate and beautiful so I decided I wanted to learn a bit more about it for this blog. Many sources illustrate the importance of eagles, not just in individual tribes, but among Native American culture as a whole. In many tribes, eagles are thought to represent the sun. They’re primary figures in many Native American legends and are widely believed to have supernatural powers, such as the ability to control the weather and carry messages to the gods. Because of this, they’re often admired and worshipped similarly to the way a god would be and are included in many spiritual rituals. Eagle feathers specifically are viewed as the conveyors of prayers to the heavens. These feathers are considered venerable and aren’t meant to touch the ground. They’re also used to make ceremonial objects and are often included in rituals, such as the Eagle Dance. 

The Eagle Dance is often celebrated in spring (based on weather patterns rather than calendrical designations). More specifically, it’s performed when tribes are seeking divine intervention or help from a higher power (for example, to cure illness or ask for rain). The ritual consists of different songs and dances performed consecutively, which convey the eagle’s life cycle, including its birth, how it learns to walk and hunt, and its death. These things are presented through actions like turning, flapping, and swaying. Dancers wear clothes that represent the colors and appearance of eagles. Paint and feathers are applied to the arms, legs, and bodies, along with caps that have feathers and a yellow beak. 

However, the Eagle Dance is performed among many tribes, including the Iroquois, Comanche, Midwestern Calumet, and more. So, naturally, the dance does vary slightly from tribe to tribe. Within the Navajo tribe, it’s used to pray for more eagles, and the Eagle Dancer is honored and presented with a variety of gifts. The Jemez and Tesuque tribes perform the Dance with two people representing the eagles (one man and one woman). However, the Comanche’s Eagle Dance includes only one dancer, who is meant to represent the son of a chieftain who became an eagle after death.

The first video below shows a more traditional representation of the Eagle Dance by the Jemez Pueblo tribe referenced above. As mentioned, it features two dancers representing the eagles. The second video is a slightly more modern take that incorporates some music in English with a mixture of vocables and lyrics in a Native language. Despite the differences, both dances feature the typical feather wings and swaying movements common to the ritual.

Another thing I was interested in was the origination of the panpipes in the Andes mountains and the fact that they were invented completely distinctly from those in ancient Greece. I found that they’re believed to have likely developed in the Aymara culture of the Lake Titicaca region, specifically Peru. There are three Peruvian cultures that have been identified as the likely earliest users of the panpipes. These include the Nasca culture (1,100 BC - 750 AD), the Paracas (600 BC - 175 BC), and the Moche (100 AD - 800 AD). In the Aymaran language, the panpipes are traditionally referred to as “siku”, while in Quechuan and Spanish they’re called “antara” and “zampoña”, respectively. As the instrument spread from region to region, it began to vary in size and design. In ancient times the panpipes were made out of bone, condor feathers, and clay, but these materials have since been replaced with bamboo. Today, sikus are made from various types of bamboo, each of which has different tonal characteristics. On average, these instruments have about 13 pipes, but the amount can vary to include more or fewer notes. The panpipes are still considered to be key characteristics of many ceremonies today, and the rondador (a set of chorded pipes that produce two tones simultaneously) is the national instrument of Ecuador. The rondador specifically is believed to be a post-Colombian invention because it follows a chromatic scale that was unknown to the Incas.

I went through a few of the covers made by the artists in the channel featured below but decided this was one of the ones I liked most because it features two different sets of panpipes that produce slightly different sounds. It also showed how the panpipes can be played in conjunction with a variety of other instruments, as well as how they can create both extremely breathy and very intense sounds depending on mouth position and movement.

Linguistics is another topic that’s really interesting to me so I was excited to learn more about the way Africa’s tonal languages influence its music. In sub-Saharan Africa, most languages are tonal. In the Bantu language of Shona, meaning varies based on the specific tones used for words. In terms of music, It’s been found that, in general, language has a big role in musical organization, and inflections are important to the development of melodies. Individuals who speak tonal languages have been found to be better at distinguishing the musical notes of various sounds without having any actual musical notes for reference. 

African tonal languages specifically have been understudied throughout history. A 2021 study by Kathryn Franich and Ange B. Lendja Ngnemzué studies traditional folk songs in the Bantu language of Medʉmba, spoken in Cameroon. In terms of phonemes, Medʉmba only presents a tonal distinction between high and low tones. The findings of this study showed that differences in rhythm depended on the voices and the parts of the song being considered. Drummers had more flexibility to deviate from the consistent pulse than the other percussion instruments. As these songs often consist of call and response, it was also shown that the master drummer (caller) had more flexibility during sung portions than those responding to them did. Despite these smaller differences, they found that there were significant connections between song structure and linguistic characteristics during sung portions of the folk songs. Other sources have found that “nonsense syllables” are often used to form patterns in the instrumental rhythms of African music. Speakers of these tonal languages can also communicate over long distances and, historically, this has been done using drums that imitate certain African tonal patterns.

The first video below shows some specific examples. If the concept is a bit challenging to understand in terms of African languages, this presenter provides an example of how tonal differences occur in English as well, with the terms present vs. present. They also showed two different sentences in the western Nigerian language of Yoruba and the way emphasis on certain parts of certain words changed the meaning of the sentences that were made up of what looked like the exact same words. This specific researcher found that correlation between tone and music was stronger in traditional music than in contemporary types.

The tonal language concept is displayed in African languages in the videos below by performers using talking drums, which we already learned a bit about in class. I liked the first video because it provided a lyrical translation in English to go along with the song but the second performance is a bit more exciting in my opinion. It's hard to understand how it follows any sort of tonal language without a translation in any language but I think it shows a fun performance of the talking drum regardless!

References:

Andean Lodges. (2019, October 16). The Andean panpipe: Its origins and enduring music. https://andeanlodges.com/en/the-andean-panpipe-its-origins-and-enduring-music/

Coles, M. (2016, March 11). Eagle Dance display. Center for the Study of World Religions. https://cswr.hds.harvard.edu/news/2016/03/11/eagle-dance-display

Farlex. (n.d.). Eagle Dance. The Free Dictionary. https://encyclopedia2.thefreedictionary.com/Eagle+Dance

Franich, K. H., & Lendja Ngnemzué, A. B. (2021). Feeling the beat in an African tone language: Rhythmic mapping between language and music. Frontiers in Communication. https://doi.org/10.3389/fcomm.2021.653747

Kachina House. (2017, January 6). History of the Eagle Dance. https://blog.kachinahouse.com/history-of-the-eagle-dance/#comments

Native Flutes Walking. (n.d.). Panpipes of the Americas. http://www.nativefluteswalking.com/panpipes-andean-american.shtml

wa Mukunu, K. (1996). The impact of African music and language on the music creative process in Americas. Community Development Library. http://www.nzdl.org/cgi-bin/library?e=d-00000-00---off-0cdl--00-0----0-10-0---0---0direct-10---4-------0-0l--11-en-50---20-about---00-0-1-00-0-0-11----0-0-&a=d&c=cdl&cl=CL1.62&d=HASHa9cb68fb0a46beb618f7eb.8.3

Woman of the World. (2018, July 30). The most musical languages in the world: What is a tonal language? Asian Absolute. https://asianabsolute.co.uk/blog/2018/07/30/the-most-musical-languages-in-the-world-what-is-a-tonal-language/

Music and Gender

I don’t know of any official research or studies that have covered this topic, but based on an array of gender stereotypes it’s not difficult to speculate about expectations regarding listening habits. I imagine society would expect males to lean more towards heavier music (rock, metal, etc.) than women would. Additionally, I believe women would be expected to prefer more “mainstream” music, such as the pop music generally played on the radio.

These expectations are influenced not just by the issue of gender, but also the topic of sexuality, as opposing these expectations can sometimes lead to something as serious as homophobia. For example, it’s considered normal for women to like both male and women artists but men are not usually expected to enjoy music made by women. This issue doesn’t seem to be as prominent when it comes to the music women are expected to listen to, but men who enjoy more mainstream pop music by women, or possibly boy bands, will often be judged through a lens of homophobia.

        

This intersects with expectations about what sort of music men and women are expected to produce. While there are many examples that go against these stereotypes in modern music, I do think it’s considered to be more common for women to produce pop music and write about topics such as love and relationships. While it’s common for men to write about these things as well, I think they’re also generally expected to branch out more and produce the heavier and more intense music that they’re also expected to listen to. My personal experiences are what made me think of this issue specifically. Throughout middle school, I went through an intense boy band phase and I found that these artists were often viewed through a homophobic lens, as producing solely “poppy” music targeted towards young girls was considered out of the norm for men.
        

I don’t have a wide array of personal experience with music ensembles or which music-related jobs tend to be delegated to which genders. However, I do recall a few observations from elementary-high school. As far as I can remember, the conductors in ensembles have always been male. My experience with teachers is a bit more inconsistent, as my music teacher in elementary school was a woman but the chorus and band teachers in middle school were both men. Since coming to Converse, this has changed a bit because I know so many music majors who are women, and they’re always the ones managing music projects, organizing equipment, and other jobs. I don’t believe I have enough experience with the various instruments and choir sections to notice any gender differences or similarities.
        

For the most part, I think a majority of genres consist of more male performers than women, with the exception of pop music. One of my favorite genres that tends to be pretty male-dominated is pop-punk. Of course, there are a lot of women within this genre as well, but the majority of the popular artists are bands with male leads. I went to the Vans Warped Tour in 2018 and most of the bands I saw consisted of male vocalists and instrumentalists, including Mayday Parade, Crown the Empire, and The Maine. However, there were a couple of women-led bands there that I still listen to. The main one is Doll Skin, an all-women band that makes a mixture of pop, punk, and rock music. Their 2019 album specifically features various songs that give off what I can best describe as a Lisbeth Salander/The Girl With the Dragon Tattoo vibe, focusing on the struggles and rights of sex workers and women who may have experienced some sort of assault or violence. The other woman-led band I saw, which I don’t listen to as often, is Tonight Alive.

(Just as a warning, this video features a good bit of flashing/strobing so feel free to skip if that will affect you in any way!)

Some other genres I enjoy are indie folk, indie pop, and rock. Most of these are made up primarily of male artists as well, including Hozier, Arctic Monkeys, and Hippocampus. However, there are some notable women performers in these categories. A couple of my favorites are Florence + The Machine and Phoebe Bridgers. Both of them have really powerful and beautiful voices and I think the lyrics of their songs are so interesting to listen to.

My Musical Culture

Hey, my name’s Savannah! I’m from the very small town of Campobello and I’ve lived in SC my whole life. I’m majoring in psychology, minoring in women’s studies, and I’ll be graduating in May! What I love doing most during my free time is reading, listening to true crime podcasts, and watching TV/movies with my friends. I’ve never really been involved in music or performing at any point in my life but I do have music playing at almost any given time, especially when driving or cleaning. My favorite genres are probably mixtures of pop, indie, punk, and rock.

A song that's ended up in my "On Repeat" on Spotify recently is “Misty” by Butterknife. This is one of only two songs that they’ve released so I can’t say they’re necessarily an artist I love but I do really enjoy this song. I guess the reason I like this song so much at the moment is because it always makes me think of some of the people I care about most. While it sounds mostly like a romantic love song at first, the lyrics “You feel like home to me, even when I lose your key” and “Butterflies in my chest, I know you know me the best” remind me of my best friends and the way they make me feel. I also just enjoy the slight city ambience sounds at the beginning and end of the song because they make it feel a bit more immersive.

A song that resonated very strongly with me as soon as I heard it is “hope ur okay” by Olivia Rodrigo. The lyrics perfectly convey the ways you can lose touch with someone but still care for them and wish them the best. It also has a more underlying message of acceptance and self-love that has the potential to benefit so many people in a variety of ways. I think all of the verses are good but my favorite part is probably the bridge because it manages to feel both suspenseful and comforting at the same time.

One musical genre I've never really connected with is EDM. I understand how it could be enjoyable in a party setting. However, I personally enjoy music that showcases the vocals more than, or at least equal to, the instrumentals. Because of this, most EDM has a bit too much going on all at once for my taste. I’m sure it’s not all the same, just like the music of any other genre isn’t all the same, but a lot of the EDM I’ve heard also seems to become kind of repetitive throughout the span of a 3 or 4 minute song. I don’t particularly like this song either but since Hozier is one of my favorite artists and he collaborated on it, I have listened to it a couple of different times.

I’m including this one just because I mentioned Hozier above and wanted to showcase an example of his music that I really love! I like the song itself but there are also several live versions of him performing it, all of which showcase his vocals over the instrumentals. But at the same time, they show how talented he is both vocally and instrumentally.